| Parapsychology is the "study of the | | | | the universe. |
| evidence for psychological phenomena, | | | | A substantial portion of |
| such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and | | | | parapsychologists feel that over time |
| psychokinesis, that are inexplicable by | | | | they have gathered at least a small |
| science." Parapsychology includes "... | | | | amount of data from properly controlled |
| any of several types of events that | | | | experiments, data that they feel can be |
| cannot be accounted for by natural law | | | | trusted for a small number of psi |
| or knowledge apparently acquired by | | | | phenomena. A smaller group believes that |
| other than usual sensory abilities." The | | | | a great deal of evidence has been |
| Parapsychological Association defines | | | | collected, which, if it addressed more |
| parapsychology as the study of certain | | | | conventional phenomena, would be |
| types of paranormal phenomena, or of | | | | sufficient to provide proof. Not all |
| phenomena which appear to be paranormal. | | | | parapsychologists agree, however. Some |
| The term, which comes from Greek para | | | | parapsychologists hold that this |
| (beside/beyond), psyche (soul/mind), and | | | | evidence is not definitive, but |
| logos (account/explanation), was coined | | | | suggestive enough to warrant further |
| by psychologist Max Dessoir in the late | | | | research. |
| 1880s J. B. Rhine later popularized | | | | Contemporary parapsychology often looks |
| "parapsychology" as a replacement for | | | | at the statistical data of experiments |
| the earlier term "psychical research", | | | | for validation of psychic phenomena. |
| after psychic researchers began using | | | | Some experiments have tested the |
| experimental methods to study psychic | | | | possibility of ESP by having subjects |
| phenomena.In contemporary research, the | | | | guess targets such as cards, pictures, |
| term 'parapsychology' refers to the | | | | or videos. There have also been many |
| study of psi, a blanket term used by | | | | psychokinesis experiments testing the |
| academic parapsychologists to denote | | | | possibility that the mind can influence |
| anomalous processes or outcomes. | | | | random number generators. Other |
| The scientific reality of | | | | experiments, such as the ganzfeld |
| parapsychological phenomena and the | | | | procedure, test for the possibility of |
| validity of scientific parapsychological | | | | telepathy. In these experiments, a |
| research is a matter of frequent dispute | | | | statistical deviation from chance is |
| and criticism. The field is regarded by | | | | seen to be evidence of psi, which |
| critics as a pseudoscience. Encyclopedia | | | | parapsychologist feel indicates psychic |
| Brittanica notes that "...[d]iscussion | | | | phenomena. |
| about parapsychological phenomena has | | | | According to parapsychologists such as |
| sometimes assumed emotional overtones, | | | | Dean Radin, who was formerly President |
| unsuitable to scientific discipline, and | | | | of the Parapsychological Association, |
| outspoken but contradictory opinions are | | | | many of these experiments have had |
| still frequently voiced", and states | | | | positive results, with subjects scoring |
| that "...[w]hen such extreme and | | | | significantly above chance. He says that |
| contradictory views are widely held, it | | | | when analyzed using statistics, this |
| is almost certain that the evidence is | | | | significance has often been very |
| not conclusive either way and that | | | | high.[10](Radin 1997:84) The odds |
| confident conclusions are unlikely to be | | | | against chance of many of these |
| supported by a survey of all the known | | | | statistical outcomes often range from |
| facts." | | | | one in thousands to one in trillions, |
| Parapsychologists claim that | | | | which leads Radin and other |
| parapsychological research is | | | | parapsychologists to believe that these |
| scientifically rigorous. Despite | | | | statistically significant results are in |
| criticisms, a number of academic | | | | favor of the existence of psi, or some |
| institutions now conduct research on the | | | | other unknown factor causing the |
| topic, employing laboratory | | | | deviation. |
| methodologies and statistical | | | | Not everyone agrees with this |
| techniques, such as meta-analysis. The | | | | interpretation of parapsychological |
| Parapsychological Association is the | | | | work. Although generally accepted within |
| leading association for | | | | the parapsychology community, the |
| parapsychologists and has been a member | | | | statistical evidence for psychic |
| of the American Association for the | | | | phenomena has received strong opposition |
| Advancement of Science since 1969. | | | | from outside sources, notably from the |
| Parapsychology employs a number of | | | | Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). |
| research methods in studying the | | | | Skeptical scholars such as Ray Hyman, |
| possibility of psychical phenomena. | | | | who was a founding member of CSI, has |
| Among these is the experimental | | | | said that parapsychology needs to do |
| approach. | | | | more theoretical work and produce |
| Experimental research | | | | results which are more easily |
| A number of experiments have been | | | | replicable. He has also said that |
| conducted by parapsychologists since the | | | | parapsychology lacks a cumulative |
| 1930s, utilizing a wide range of | | | | database, and that its claims are based |
| methodologies that have changed over the | | | | on the rejection of the null hypothesis. |
| years. As recently as 2006, computer | | | | In other words, these experiments do not |
| scientists at the University of | | | | detect psi directly. Other scientists, |
| Manchester tested the possibility of | | | | such as noted skeptic James E. Alcock, |
| telepathy by simulating a virtual | | | | have questioned the methodology of these |
| computer world in the hopes that it | | | | experiments and said there is a logical |
| would eliminate other forms of | | | | fallacy in assuming that significant |
| communication. This constant refinement | | | | departures from the laws of chance are |
| of methodologies is in response to | | | | automatically evidence that something |
| skeptical analysis of earlier | | | | paranormal has occurred. |
| experiments that call for a higher | | | | Despite controversy over |
| standard of practice in parapsychology | | | | parapsychological work, new experiments |
| because positive results challenge | | | | and a refinement of older methodologies |
| well-established scientific models of | | | | continue in the field. |