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Article #3: What is parapsychology

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Parapsychology is the "study of the models of the universe.
evidence for psychological phenomena, A substantial portion of
such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and parapsychologists feel that over time
psychokinesis, that are inexplicable by they have gathered at least a small
science." Parapsychology includes "... amount of data from properly controlled
any of several types of events that experiments, data that they feel can be
cannot be accounted for by natural law or trusted for a small number of psi
knowledge apparently acquired by other phenomena. A smaller group believes that
than usual sensory abilities." The a great deal of evidence has been
Parapsychological Association defines collected, which, if it addressed more
parapsychology as the study of certain conventional phenomena, would be
types of paranormal phenomena, or of sufficient to provide proof. Not all
phenomena which appear to be paranormal. parapsychologists agree, however. Some
The term, which comes from Greek para parapsychologists hold that this evidence
(beside/beyond), psyche (soul/mind), and is not definitive, but suggestive enough
logos (account/explanation), was coined to warrant further research.
by psychologist Max Dessoir in the late Contemporary parapsychology often looks
1880s J. B. Rhine later popularized at the statistical data of experiments
"parapsychology" as a replacement for the for validation of psychic phenomena. Some
earlier term "psychical research", after experiments have tested the possibility
psychic researchers began using of ESP by having subjects guess targets
experimental methods to study psychic such as cards, pictures, or videos. There
phenomena.In contemporary research, the have also been many psychokinesis
term 'parapsychology' refers to the study experiments testing the possibility that
of psi, a blanket term used by academic the mind can influence random number
parapsychologists to denote anomalous generators. Other experiments, such as
processes or outcomes. the ganzfeld procedure, test for the
The scientific reality of possibility of telepathy. In these
parapsychological phenomena and the experiments, a statistical deviation from
validity of scientific parapsychological chance is seen to be evidence of psi,
research is a matter of frequent dispute which parapsychologist feel indicates
and criticism. The field is regarded by psychic phenomena.
critics as a pseudoscience. Encyclopedia According to parapsychologists such as
Brittanica notes that "...[d]iscussion Dean Radin, who was formerly President of
about parapsychological phenomena has the Parapsychological Association, many
sometimes assumed emotional overtones, of these experiments have had positive
unsuitable to scientific discipline, and results, with subjects scoring
outspoken but contradictory opinions are significantly above chance. He says that
still frequently voiced", and states that when analyzed using statistics, this
"...[w]hen such extreme and contradictory significance has often been very
views are widely held, it is almost high.[10](Radin 1997:84) The odds against
certain that the evidence is not chance of many of these statistical
conclusive either way and that confident outcomes often range from one in
conclusions are unlikely to be supported thousands to one in trillions, which
by a survey of all the known facts." leads Radin and other parapsychologists
Parapsychologists claim that to believe that these statistically
parapsychological research is significant results are in favor of the
scientifically rigorous. Despite existence of psi, or some other unknown
criticisms, a number of academic factor causing the deviation.
institutions now conduct research on the Not everyone agrees with this
topic, employing laboratory methodologies interpretation of parapsychological work.
and statistical techniques, such as Although generally accepted within the
meta-analysis. The Parapsychological parapsychology community, the statistical
Association is the leading association evidence for psychic phenomena has
for parapsychologists and has been a received strong opposition from outside
member of the American Association for sources, notably from the Committee for
the Advancement of Science since 1969. Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). Skeptical
Parapsychology employs a number of scholars such as Ray Hyman, who was a
research methods in studying the founding member of CSI, has said that
possibility of psychical phenomena. Among parapsychology needs to do more
these is the experimental approach. theoretical work and produce results
Experimental research which are more easily replicable. He has
A number of experiments have been also said that parapsychology lacks a
conducted by parapsychologists since the cumulative database, and that its claims
1930s, utilizing a wide range of are based on the rejection of the null
methodologies that have changed over the hypothesis. In other words, these
years. As recently as 2006, computer experiments do not detect psi directly.
scientists at the University of Other scientists, such as noted skeptic
Manchester tested the possibility of James E. Alcock, have questioned the
telepathy by simulating a virtual methodology of these experiments and said
computer world in the hopes that it would there is a logical fallacy in assuming
eliminate other forms of communication. that significant departures from the laws
This constant refinement of methodologies of chance are automatically evidence that
is in response to skeptical analysis of something paranormal has occurred.
earlier experiments that call for a Despite controversy over
higher standard of practice in parapsychological work, new experiments
parapsychology because positive results and a refinement of older methodologies
challenge well-established scientific continue in the field.






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