| Parapsychology is the "study of the evidence for | | | | universe. |
| psychological phenomena, such as telepathy, | | | | A substantial portion of parapsychologists feel that |
| clairvoyance, and psychokinesis, that are inexplicable | | | | over time they have gathered at least a small amount |
| by science." Parapsychology includes "... any of several | | | | of data from properly controlled experiments, data that |
| types of events that cannot be accounted for by | | | | they feel can be trusted for a small number of psi |
| natural law or knowledge apparently acquired by other | | | | phenomena. A smaller group believes that a great deal |
| than usual sensory abilities." The Parapsychological | | | | of evidence has been collected, which, if it addressed |
| Association defines parapsychology as the study of | | | | more conventional phenomena, would be sufficient to |
| certain types of paranormal phenomena, or of | | | | provide proof. Not all parapsychologists agree, |
| phenomena which appear to be paranormal. | | | | however. Some parapsychologists hold that this |
| The term, which comes from Greek para (beside | | | | evidence is not definitive, but suggestive enough to |
| beyond), psyche (soul/mind), and logos (account | | | | warrant further research. |
| explanation), was coined by psychologist Max Dessoir | | | | Contemporary parapsychology often looks at the |
| in the late 1880s J. B. Rhine later popularized | | | | statistical data of experiments for validation of psychic |
| "parapsychology" as a replacement for the earlier | | | | phenomena. Some experiments have tested the |
| term "psychical research", after psychic researchers | | | | possibility of ESP by having subjects guess targets |
| began using experimental methods to study psychic | | | | such as cards, pictures, or videos. There have also |
| phenomena.In contemporary research, the term | | | | been many psychokinesis experiments testing the |
| 'parapsychology' refers to the study of psi, a blanket | | | | possibility that the mind can influence random number |
| term used by academic parapsychologists to denote | | | | generators. Other experiments, such as the ganzfeld |
| anomalous processes or outcomes. | | | | procedure, test for the possibility of telepathy. In these |
| The scientific reality of parapsychological phenomena | | | | experiments, a statistical deviation from chance is seen |
| and the validity of scientific parapsychological research | | | | to be evidence of psi, which parapsychologist feel |
| is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism. The field is | | | | indicates psychic phenomena. |
| regarded by critics as a pseudoscience. Encyclopedia | | | | According to parapsychologists such as Dean Radin, |
| Brittanica notes that "...[d]iscussion about | | | | who was formerly President of the Parapsychological |
| parapsychological phenomena has sometimes | | | | Association, many of these experiments have had |
| assumed emotional overtones, unsuitable to scientific | | | | positive results, with subjects scoring significantly |
| discipline, and outspoken but contradictory opinions are | | | | above chance. He says that when analyzed using |
| still frequently voiced", and states that "...[w]hen such | | | | statistics, this significance has often been very |
| extreme and contradictory views are widely held, it is | | | | high.[10](Radin 1997:84) The odds against chance of |
| almost certain that the evidence is not conclusive | | | | many of these statistical outcomes often range from |
| either way and that confident conclusions are unlikely | | | | one in thousands to one in trillions, which leads Radin |
| to be supported by a survey of all the known facts." | | | | and other parapsychologists to believe that these |
| Parapsychologists claim that parapsychological | | | | statistically significant results are in favor of the |
| research is scientifically rigorous. Despite criticisms, a | | | | existence of psi, or some other unknown factor |
| number of academic institutions now conduct research | | | | causing the deviation. |
| on the topic, employing laboratory methodologies and | | | | Not everyone agrees with this interpretation of |
| statistical techniques, such as meta-analysis. The | | | | parapsychological work. Although generally accepted |
| Parapsychological Association is the leading | | | | within the parapsychology community, the statistical |
| association for parapsychologists and has been a | | | | evidence for psychic phenomena has received strong |
| member of the American Association for the | | | | opposition from outside sources, notably from the |
| Advancement of Science since 1969. | | | | Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). Skeptical |
| Parapsychology employs a number of research | | | | scholars such as Ray Hyman, who was a founding |
| methods in studying the possibility of psychical | | | | member of CSI, has said that parapsychology needs |
| phenomena. Among these is the experimental | | | | to do more theoretical work and produce results which |
| approach. | | | | are more easily replicable. He has also said that |
| Experimental research | | | | parapsychology lacks a cumulative database, and that |
| A number of experiments have been conducted by | | | | its claims are based on the rejection of the null |
| parapsychologists since the 1930s, utilizing a wide | | | | hypothesis. In other words, these experiments do not |
| range of methodologies that have changed over the | | | | detect psi directly. Other scientists, such as noted |
| years. As recently as 2006, computer scientists at the | | | | skeptic James E. Alcock, have questioned the |
| University of Manchester tested the possibility of | | | | methodology of these experiments and said there is a |
| telepathy by simulating a virtual computer world in the | | | | logical fallacy in assuming that significant departures |
| hopes that it would eliminate other forms of | | | | from the laws of chance are automatically evidence |
| communication. This constant refinement of | | | | that something paranormal has occurred. |
| methodologies is in response to skeptical analysis of | | | | Despite controversy over parapsychological work, |
| earlier experiments that call for a higher standard of | | | | new experiments and a refinement of older |
| practice in parapsychology because positive results | | | | methodologies continue in the field. |
| challenge well-established scientific models of the | | | | |