| Parapsychology is the "study of the evidence | | | | challenge well-established scientific models |
| for psychological phenomena, such as | | | | of the universe. |
| telepathy, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis, | | | | |
| that are inexplicable by science." | | | | A substantial portion of parapsychologists |
| Parapsychology includes "... any of several | | | | feel that over time they have gathered at |
| types of events that cannot be accounted for | | | | least a small amount of data from properly |
| by natural law or knowledge apparently | | | | controlled experiments, data that they feel |
| acquired by other than usual sensory | | | | can be trusted for a small number of psi |
| abilities." The Parapsychological Association | | | | phenomena. A smaller group believes that a |
| defines parapsychology as the study of | | | | great deal of evidence has been collected, |
| certain types of paranormal phenomena, or of | | | | which, if it addressed more conventional |
| phenomena which appear to be paranormal. | | | | phenomena, would be sufficient to provide |
| | | | proof. Not all parapsychologists agree, |
| The term, which comes from Greek para (beside | | | | however. Some parapsychologists hold that |
| beyond), psyche (soul/mind), and logos | | | | this evidence is not definitive, but |
| (account/explanation), was coined by | | | | suggestive enough to warrant further |
| psychologist Max Dessoir in the late 1880s J. | | | | research. |
| B. Rhine later popularized "parapsychology" | | | | |
| as a replacement for the earlier term | | | | Contemporary parapsychology often looks at |
| "psychical research", after psychic | | | | the statistical data of experiments for |
| researchers began using experimental methods | | | | validation of psychic phenomena. Some |
| to study psychic phenomena.In contemporary | | | | experiments have tested the possibility of |
| research, the term 'parapsychology' refers to | | | | ESP by having subjects guess targets such as |
| the study of psi, a blanket term used by | | | | cards, pictures, or videos. There have also |
| academic parapsychologists to denote | | | | been many psychokinesis experiments testing |
| anomalous processes or outcomes. | | | | the possibility that the mind can influence |
| | | | random number generators. Other experiments, |
| The scientific reality of parapsychological | | | | such as the ganzfeld procedure, test for the |
| phenomena and the validity of scientific | | | | possibility of telepathy. In these |
| parapsychological research is a matter of | | | | experiments, a statistical deviation from |
| frequent dispute and criticism. The field is | | | | chance is seen to be evidence of psi, which |
| regarded by critics as a pseudoscience. | | | | parapsychologist feel indicates psychic |
| Encyclopedia Brittanica notes that | | | | phenomena. |
| "...[d]iscussion about parapsychological | | | | |
| phenomena has sometimes assumed emotional | | | | According to parapsychologists such as Dean |
| overtones, unsuitable to scientific | | | | Radin, who was formerly President of the |
| discipline, and outspoken but contradictory | | | | Parapsychological Association, many of these |
| opinions are still frequently voiced", and | | | | experiments have had positive results, with |
| states that "...[w]hen such extreme and | | | | subjects scoring significantly above chance. |
| contradictory views are widely held, it is | | | | He says that when analyzed using statistics, |
| almost certain that the evidence is not | | | | this significance has often been very |
| conclusive either way and that confident | | | | high.[10](Radin 1997:84) The odds against |
| conclusions are unlikely to be supported by a | | | | chance of many of these statistical outcomes |
| survey of all the known facts." | | | | often range from one in thousands to one in |
| | | | trillions, which leads Radin and other |
| Parapsychologists claim that | | | | parapsychologists to believe that these |
| parapsychological research is scientifically | | | | statistically significant results are in |
| rigorous. Despite criticisms, a number of | | | | favor of the existence of psi, or some other |
| academic institutions now conduct research on | | | | unknown factor causing the deviation. |
| the topic, employing laboratory methodologies | | | | |
| and statistical techniques, such as | | | | Not everyone agrees with this interpretation |
| meta-analysis. The Parapsychological | | | | of parapsychological work. Although generally |
| Association is the leading association for | | | | accepted within the parapsychology community, |
| parapsychologists and has been a member of | | | | the statistical evidence for psychic |
| the American Association for the Advancement | | | | phenomena has received strong opposition from |
| of Science since 1969. | | | | outside sources, notably from the Committee |
| | | | for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). Skeptical |
| Parapsychology employs a number of research | | | | scholars such as Ray Hyman, who was a |
| methods in studying the possibility of | | | | founding member of CSI, has said that |
| psychical phenomena. Among these is the | | | | parapsychology needs to do more theoretical |
| experimental approach. | | | | work and produce results which are more |
| | | | easily replicable. He has also said that |
| Experimental research | | | | parapsychology lacks a cumulative database, |
| | | | and that its claims are based on the |
| A number of experiments have been conducted | | | | rejection of the null hypothesis. In other |
| by parapsychologists since the 1930s, | | | | words, these experiments do not detect psi |
| utilizing a wide range of methodologies that | | | | directly. Other scientists, such as noted |
| have changed over the years. As recently as | | | | skeptic James E. Alcock, have questioned the |
| 2006, computer scientists at the University | | | | methodology of these experiments and said |
| of Manchester tested the possibility of | | | | there is a logical fallacy in assuming that |
| telepathy by simulating a virtual computer | | | | significant departures from the laws of |
| world in the hopes that it would eliminate | | | | chance are automatically evidence that |
| other forms of communication. This constant | | | | something paranormal has occurred. |
| refinement of methodologies is in response to | | | | |
| skeptical analysis of earlier experiments | | | | Despite controversy over parapsychological |
| that call for a higher standard of practice | | | | work, new experiments and a refinement of |
| in parapsychology because positive results | | | | older methodologies continue in the field. |