| Parapsychology is the "study of the
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| | models of the universe.
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| evidence for psychological phenomena,
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| | A substantial portion of
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| such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and
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| | parapsychologists feel that over time
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| psychokinesis, that are inexplicable by
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| | they have gathered at least a small
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| science." Parapsychology includes "...
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| | amount of data from properly controlled
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| any of several types of events that
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| | experiments, data that they feel can be
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| cannot be accounted for by natural law or
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| | trusted for a small number of psi
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| knowledge apparently acquired by other
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| | phenomena. A smaller group believes that
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| than usual sensory abilities." The
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| | a great deal of evidence has been
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| Parapsychological Association defines
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| | collected, which, if it addressed more
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| parapsychology as the study of certain
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| | conventional phenomena, would be
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| types of paranormal phenomena, or of
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| | sufficient to provide proof. Not all
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| phenomena which appear to be paranormal.
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| | parapsychologists agree, however. Some
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| The term, which comes from Greek para
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| | parapsychologists hold that this evidence
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| (beside/beyond), psyche (soul/mind), and
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| | is not definitive, but suggestive enough
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| logos (account/explanation), was coined
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| | to warrant further research.
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| by psychologist Max Dessoir in the late
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| | Contemporary parapsychology often looks
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| 1880s J. B. Rhine later popularized
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| | at the statistical data of experiments
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| "parapsychology" as a replacement for the
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| | for validation of psychic phenomena. Some
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| earlier term "psychical research", after
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| | experiments have tested the possibility
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| psychic researchers began using
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| | of ESP by having subjects guess targets
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| experimental methods to study psychic
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| | such as cards, pictures, or videos. There
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| phenomena.In contemporary research, the
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| | have also been many psychokinesis
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| term 'parapsychology' refers to the study
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| | experiments testing the possibility that
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| of psi, a blanket term used by academic
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| | the mind can influence random number
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| parapsychologists to denote anomalous
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| | generators. Other experiments, such as
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| processes or outcomes.
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| | the ganzfeld procedure, test for the
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| The scientific reality of
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| | possibility of telepathy. In these
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| parapsychological phenomena and the
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| | experiments, a statistical deviation from
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| validity of scientific parapsychological
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| | chance is seen to be evidence of psi,
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| research is a matter of frequent dispute
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| | which parapsychologist feel indicates
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| and criticism. The field is regarded by
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| | psychic phenomena.
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| critics as a pseudoscience. Encyclopedia
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| | According to parapsychologists such as
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| Brittanica notes that "...[d]iscussion
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| | Dean Radin, who was formerly President of
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| about parapsychological phenomena has
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| | the Parapsychological Association, many
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| sometimes assumed emotional overtones,
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| | of these experiments have had positive
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| unsuitable to scientific discipline, and
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| | results, with subjects scoring
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| outspoken but contradictory opinions are
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| | significantly above chance. He says that
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| still frequently voiced", and states that
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| | when analyzed using statistics, this
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| "...[w]hen such extreme and contradictory
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| | significance has often been very
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| views are widely held, it is almost
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| | high.[10](Radin 1997:84) The odds against
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| certain that the evidence is not
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| | chance of many of these statistical
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| conclusive either way and that confident
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| | outcomes often range from one in
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| conclusions are unlikely to be supported
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| | thousands to one in trillions, which
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| by a survey of all the known facts."
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| | leads Radin and other parapsychologists
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| Parapsychologists claim that
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| | to believe that these statistically
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| parapsychological research is
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| | significant results are in favor of the
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| scientifically rigorous. Despite
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| | existence of psi, or some other unknown
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| criticisms, a number of academic
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| | factor causing the deviation.
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| institutions now conduct research on the
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| | Not everyone agrees with this
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| topic, employing laboratory methodologies
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| | interpretation of parapsychological work.
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| and statistical techniques, such as
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| | Although generally accepted within the
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| meta-analysis. The Parapsychological
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| | parapsychology community, the statistical
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| Association is the leading association
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| | evidence for psychic phenomena has
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| for parapsychologists and has been a
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| | received strong opposition from outside
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| member of the American Association for
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| | sources, notably from the Committee for
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| the Advancement of Science since 1969.
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| | Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). Skeptical
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| Parapsychology employs a number of
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| | scholars such as Ray Hyman, who was a
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| research methods in studying the
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| | founding member of CSI, has said that
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| possibility of psychical phenomena. Among
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| | parapsychology needs to do more
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| these is the experimental approach.
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| | theoretical work and produce results
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| Experimental research
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| | which are more easily replicable. He has
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| A number of experiments have been
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| | also said that parapsychology lacks a
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| conducted by parapsychologists since the
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| | cumulative database, and that its claims
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| 1930s, utilizing a wide range of
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| | are based on the rejection of the null
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| methodologies that have changed over the
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| | hypothesis. In other words, these
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| years. As recently as 2006, computer
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| | experiments do not detect psi directly.
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| scientists at the University of
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| | Other scientists, such as noted skeptic
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| Manchester tested the possibility of
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| | James E. Alcock, have questioned the
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| telepathy by simulating a virtual
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| | methodology of these experiments and said
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| computer world in the hopes that it would
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| | there is a logical fallacy in assuming
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| eliminate other forms of communication.
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| | that significant departures from the laws
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| This constant refinement of methodologies
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| | of chance are automatically evidence that
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| is in response to skeptical analysis of
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| | something paranormal has occurred.
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| earlier experiments that call for a
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| | Despite controversy over
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| higher standard of practice in
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| | parapsychological work, new experiments
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| parapsychology because positive results
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| | and a refinement of older methodologies
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| challenge well-established scientific
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| | continue in the field.
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